Jaguar
by. Nolvyhindarto,S.Si_Encartablog_Animals
Jaguar [1] | |
Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)[2] | |
Kingdom: | |
Phylum: | |
Class: | |
Order: | |
Family: | |
Genus: | |
Species: | P. onca |
Panthera onca | |
Jaguar range | |
The jaguar (Panthera onca) is a
a feline in the
and is the only Panthera species found in the
The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the
and the lion, and the largest and most powerful feline in
the Western Hemisphere. The jaguar's present range extends
from Mexico across much of Central America and south to
and northern Argentina. Apart from a known and possibly breeding
population in Arizona (southeast of
the cat has largely been
from the United States since the early 1900s.
physically, although it is usually larger and of sturdier build and
its behavioral and habitat characteristics are closer to those of the
tiger. While dense rainforest is its preferred habitat, the jaguar
will range across a variety of forested and open terrain. It is strongly
associated with the presence of water and is notable, along with the
tiger, as a feline that enjoys swimming. The jaguar is a largely
stalk-and-ambush predator, and is opportunistic in prey selection.
It is also an apex and
predator, playing an important role in stabilizing
ecosystems and regulating the populations of prey species. The jaguar
has an exceptionally powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats.
color: #0000FF;">[3] This allows it to pierce the
shells of armoured reptiles[4] and to employ an unusual killing
method: it bites directly through the
of prey between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain.[5]
species and its numbers are declining. Threats include habitat loss
and fragmentation. While international trade in jaguars or their parts
is prohibited, the cat is still regularly killed by humans, particularly
in conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America. Although reduced,
its range remains large; given its historical distribution, the jaguar
has featured prominently in the mythology of numerous
American cultures, including that of the
and Aztec.
|
Etymology
A jaguar at the
County Zoological Gardens
English)
one of the Tupi-Guarani languages, presumably the Amazonian
language
via Portuguese jaguar.[6] The Tupian word, yaguara "beast", sometimes translated as "dog",
color: #0000FF;">[7][8] is used for any carnivorous
mammal;[9] the specific word for jaguar
was yaguareté, with the suffix -eté meaning "real" or "true".[6][9][10]
from the Greek word for
the type species for the genus. This has been said to
derive from the παν- "all" and θήρ "beast", though this may be a
color: #0000FF;">[11]—it may instead be ultimately
of Sanskrit origin, from pundarikam, the Sanskrit word for "tiger".[12]
dropped for typographical reasons, found in English as ounce for the
uncia. It derives from the Latin lyncea lynx, with the letter L confused with the
article (
color: #0000FF;">[13]
In many Central and South American countries, the cat is referred
to as el tigre ("the tiger").
Taxonomy
genus. DNA evidence shows that the
jaguar, snow leopard, and
leopard share a common ancestor and that this group
is between six and ten million years old;[14] the fossil record points to
the emergence of Panthera just two to 3.8 million years ago.[14][15]
studies generally have shown that the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is
to this group.[14][16][17][18] The position of
the remaining species varies between studies and is effectively unresolved.
Pocock concluded that the jaguar is most closely related
to the leopard.[18] However, DNA evidence is inconclusive
and the position of the jaguar relative to the other species varies
between studies.[14][16][17][18] Fossils of extinct
species, such as the European Jaguar (Panthera gombaszoegensis) and the
Lion (Panthera atrox), show characteristics of both the lion and
the jaguar.[18] Analysis of jaguar
DNA has dated the species lineage to between 280,000
and 510,000 years ago, later than suggested by fossil records.[19]
Geographical variation
While numerous subspecies of the jaguar have been recognized, recent
research suggests just three. Geographical barriers, such as the
river, limit gene flow within the species.
by Pocock in 1939. Based on geographic origins and skull
he recognized eight subspecies. However, he did not have access to sufficient
specimens to critically evaluate all subspecies, and he expressed doubt
about the status of several. Later consideration of his work suggested
only three subspecies should be recognized.[20]
subspecies, and are no longer recognized.[21] Larson (1997) studied the morphological
variation in the jaguar and showed that there is
north–south variation, but also that the differentiation within the
supposed subspecies is larger than that between them and thus does not
warrant subspecies subdivision.[22] A genetic study by Eizirik
and coworkers in 2001 confirmed the absence of a clear geographical
subspecies structure, although they found that major geographical barriers
such as the Amazon River limited the exchange of genes between
the different populations.[19] A subsequent, more detailed,
study confirmed the predicted population structure within the
jaguars.[23]
Pocock's subspecies divisions are still regularly listed in general
descriptions of the cat.[24] Seymour grouped these in three
subspecies.[20]
- Panthera onca onca:
through the Amazon, including - P. onca peruviana (Peruvian Jaguar): Coastal
- P. onca hernandesii (Mexican Jaguar): Western Mexico – including
- P. onca centralis (Central American Jaguar):
to Colombia - P. onca arizonensis (Arizonan Jaguar): Southern
to Sonora, Mexico - P. onca veraecrucis: Central
to Southeastern Mexico - P. onca goldmani (Goldman's Jaguar):
Peninsula to
and Guatemala - P. onca palustris (the largest subspecies,
weighing more than 135 kg or 300 lb):[25] The
regions of Mato Grosso &
do Sul,
along the Paraguay River into
and northeastern Argentina.
The Mammal Species of the World continues to recognize nine subspecies,
the eight subspecies above and additionally P. o. paraguensis.[1]
Biology and behavior
Physical
characteristics
variations in size: weights are normally in the range of 56–96
kilograms (124–211 lb). Larger males have been recorded at 159 kilograms
(350 lb)[26] (roughly matching a tigress
or lioness), and smaller ones have extremely low weights of 36 kilograms
(80 lb). Females are typically 10–20% smaller than males. The length
of the cat varies from 1.62–1.83 metres (5.3–6 ft), and its tail
may add a further 75 centimeters (30 in). It stands about 67–76 centimeters
(27–30 in) tall at the shoulders.[27]
The head of the jaguar is robust and the jaw extremely powerful.The
size of the jaguars tend to increase the farther south they are located.
with size tending to increase from the north to south. A study of the
jaguar in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Mexican
Pacific coast, showed ranges of just 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb),
about the size of the
color: #0000FF;">[28] By contrast, a study of the
Jaguar in the Brazilian
region found average weights of 100 kilograms (220 lb) and weights of
300 lb or more are not uncommon in old males.[29] Forest jaguars are frequently
darker and considerably smaller than those found in open areas (the
Pantanal is an open wetland basin), possibly due to the smaller numbers
of large herbivorous prey in forest areas.[30]
crawling and swimming.[27] The head is robust and the
jaw extremely powerful. It has been suggested that the jaguar has the
strongest bite of all felids, and the second strongest of all mammals;
this strength is an adaptation that allows the jaguar to pierce turtle
shells.[4] A comparative study of bite
force adjusted for body size ranked it as the top felid, alongside the
clouded leopard and ahead of the lion and tiger.[31] It has been reported that "an
individual jaguar can drag a 360 kg (800 lb) bull 8 m (25 ft) in its jaws
and pulverize the heaviest bones".[32] The jaguar hunts wild animals
weighing up to 300 kilograms (660 lb) in dense jungle, and its short
and sturdy physique is thus an adaptation to its prey and environment.
A melanistic jaguar at the
Doorly Zoo.
is the result of a dominant
but remains relatively rare in jaguars.
to reddish-brown and black. The cat is covered in
for camouflage in its jungle habitat. The spots vary over individual
coats and between individual Jaguars: rosettes may include one or several
dots, and the shape of the dots varies. The spots on the head and neck
are generally solid, as are those on the tail, where they may merge
to form a band. The underbelly, throat and outer surface of the legs
and lower flanks are white.[27]
occurs in the species. The melanistic form is less common than the spotted
form (it occurs at about six percent of the population)[33] of jaguars in their South American
range have been reported to possess it—and is the result of a dominant
color: #0000FF;">[34] Jaguars with melanism appear
entirely black, although their spots are still visible on close examination.
Melanistic Jaguars are informally known as
panthers, but do not form a separate species. Rare
individuals, sometimes called
panthers, occur among jaguars, as with the other big
cats.[30]
heavier, and the two animals can be distinguished by their rosettes:
the rosettes on a jaguar's coat are larger, fewer in number,
usually darker, and have thicker lines and small spots in the middle
that the leopard lacks. Jaguars also have rounder heads and shorter,
stockier limbs compared to leopards.[35]
Reproduction and life
cycle
males at three or four. The cat is believed to mate throughout the year
in the wild, although births may increase when prey is plentiful.
color: #0000FF;">[36] Research on captive male jaguars
supports the year-round mating hypothesis, with no seasonal variation
in semen traits and ejaculatory quality; low reproductive success has
also been observed in captivity.[37] Female
is 6–17 days out of a full 37-day cycle, and females will advertise
fertility with urinary scent marks and increased vocalization.[36] Both sexes will range more
widely than usual during courtship.
Mother about to pick up a cub by the neck
The gestation period lasts 93–105 days; females give birth to
up to four cubs, and most commonly to two. The mother will not tolerate
the presence of males after the birth of cubs, given a risk of infant
this behaviour is also found in the tiger.[38]
weaned at three months but remain in the birth den for six months before
leaving to accompany their mother on hunts.[39] They will continue in their
mother's company for one to two years before leaving to establish a
territory for themselves. Young males are at first nomadic, jostling
with their older counterparts until they succeed in claiming a territory.
Typical lifespan in the wild is estimated at around 12–15 years; in
captivity, the jaguar lives up to 23 years, placing it among the longest-lived
cats.[29]
Social activity
Adults generally meet only to court and mate (though limited non-courting
socialization has been observed anecdotally[38]) and carve out large territories
for themselves. Female territories, which range from 25 to 40 square
kilometers in size, may overlap, but the animals generally avoid one
another. Male ranges cover roughly twice as much area, varying in size
with the availability of game and space, and do not overlap.[38][40] The jaguar uses scrape
marks, urine, and feces to mark its territory.[41]
male more powerfully) and does so to warn territorial and mating competitors
away; intensive bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been
observed in the wild.[42] Their roar often resembles
a repetitive cough, and they may also vocalize mews and grunts.
color: #0000FF;">[29] Mating fights between males
occur, but are rare, and aggression avoidance behaviour has been observed
in the wild.[41] When it occurs, conflict is
typically over territory: a male's range may encompass that of two or
three females, and he will not tolerate intrusions by other adult males.
color: #0000FF;">[38]
but is more specifically
(peak activity around dawn and dusk). Both sexes hunt, but males travel
further each day than females, befitting their larger territories. The
jaguar may hunt during the day if game is available and is a relatively
energetic feline, spending as much as 50–60% of its time active.
color: #0000FF;">[30] The jaguar's elusive nature
and the inaccessibility of much of its preferred habitat make it a difficult
animal to sight, let alone study.
Hunting and diet
Illustration of a jaguar battling a
feeding only on meat. It is an opportunistic hunter and its diet encompasses
87 species.[30] The jaguar prefers large prey
and will take deer,
dogs, foxes, and sometimes even
and caiman. However, the cat will eat any small species
that can be caught, including
birds, fish,
and turtles; a study conducted in
Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize, for example, revealed
that jaguars there had a diet that consisted primarily of
and pacas.[41] Some jaguars will also take
domestic livestock, including adult
and horses.[43]
The jaguar has an exceptionally powerful bite, even relative to the
other big cats. It is an adaptation that allows it to pierce the shells
of armoured reptiles.
typical among Panthera, it prefers a killing method unique amongst cats:
it pierces directly through the
bones of the
between the ears of prey (especially the
with its canine teeth, piercing the
color: #0000FF;">[44] This may be an adaptation to
"cracking open" turtle shells; following the late Pleistocene
extinctions, armoured reptiles such as turtles would have formed an
abundant prey base for the jaguar.[30][42] The skull bite is employed
with mammals in particular; with reptiles such as caiman, the jaguar
may leap on to the back of the prey and sever the
vertebrae, immobilizing the target. While capable
of cracking turtle shells, the jaguar may simply reach into the shell
and scoop out the flesh.[38] With prey such as dogs, a paw
swipe to crush the skull may be sufficient.
The cat will walk slowly down forest paths, listening for and stalking
prey before rushing or ambushing. The jaguar attacks from cover and
usually from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species'
ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom
by both indigenous people and field researchers, and are probably a
product of its role as an
in several different environments. The ambush may include leaping into
water after prey, as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill
while swimming; its strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer
can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels.[38]
other secluded spot. It begins eating at the neck and chest, rather
than the midsection. The heart and lungs are consumed, followed by the
shoulders.[38] The daily food requirement
of a 34 kilogram animal, at the extreme low end of the species' weight
range, has been estimated at 1.4 kilograms.[45] For captive animals in the
50–60 kilogram range, more than 2 kilograms of meat daily is recommended.
color: #0000FF;">[46] In the wild, consumption is
naturally more erratic; wild cats expend considerable energy in the
capture and kill of prey, and may consume up to 25 kilograms of meat
at one feeding, followed by periods of famine.[47] Unlike all other species in
the Panthera genus, jaguars
very rarely attack humans. Most of the scant cases where jaguars turn
to taking a human show that the animal is either old with damaged teeth
or is wounded.[48] Sometimes, if scared, jaguars
in captivity may lash out at zookeepers.[49]
Ecology
Distribution
and habitat
years[24] and it has been an American
cat since crossing the
Land Bridge during the
epoch; the immediate ancestor of modern animals is
contemporary cat.[23] Its present range extends from
Mexico, through Central America and into South America, including much
of Amazonian Brazil.[50] The countries included in this
range are Argentina,
Rica (particularly on the
Guiana,
Mexico, Nicaragua,
United States and Venezuela. The jaguar is now extinct in El Salvador
and Uruguay.[2] It occurs in the 400 km²
Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize, the 5,300 km²
Reserve in Mexico, the approximately 15,000 km²
National Park in Peru, the approximately 26,000 km²
National Park in Brazil, and numerous other reserves
throughout its range.
The jaguar can range across a variety of forested and open habitat,
but is strongly associated with presence of water.
sightings in the southwest, particularly in
and Texas. In the early 1900s, the jaguar's range extended
as far north as the Grand Canyon, and as far west as
California.[45] The jaguar is a protected species
in the United States under the
Species Act, which has stopped the shooting of the
animal for its pelt. In 2004, wildlife officials in Arizona photographed
and documented jaguars in the southern part of the state. For any permanent
population to thrive, protection from killing, an adequate prey base,
and connectivity with Mexican populations are essential.[51] On February 25, 2009 a 118 lb
Jaguar was caught, radio-collared and released in an area southwest
of Tucson, Arizona; this is farther north than had
previously been expected and represents a sign that there may be a permanent
breeding population of Jaguars within southern
It was later confirmed that the animal is indeed the same male individual
(known as 'Macho B') that was photographed in 2004 and is now the oldest
known Jaguar in the wild (approximately 15 years old.)[52] On Monday March 2, 2009, Macho
B, which is the only jaguar spotted in the U.S. in more than a decade,
was recaptured and euthanized after he was found to be suffering from
kidney failure.[53]
States–Mexico barrier as currently proposed will
reduce the viability of any population currently residing in the United
States, by reducing gene flow with Mexican populations, and prevent
any further northward expansion for the species.[54]
of the United States, and in the south extended much farther to cover
most of the South American continent. In total, its northern
range has receded 1000 kilometers southward and its southern range 2000 km
northward. Ice age fossils of the jaguar, dated between 40,000
and 11,500 years ago, have been discovered in the United States, including
some at an important site as far north as
Fossil evidence shows jaguars of up to 190 kg (420 lb), much larger than
the contemporary average for the animal.[55]
of South and Central America, open, seasonally flooded
wetlands, and dry grassland terrain. Of these habitats, the jaguar much
prefers dense forest;[30] the cat has lost range most
rapidly in regions of drier habitat, such as the Argentinian
the arid grasslands of Mexico, and the southwestern United States.
color: #0000FF;">[2] The cat will range across tropical,
subtropical, and dry deciduous forests (including, historically, oak
forests in the United States). The jaguar is strongly associated with
water and it often prefers to live by rivers, swamps, and in dense rainforest
with thick cover for stalking prey. Jaguars have been found at elevations
as high as 3800 m, but they typically avoid montane forest and are not
found in the high plateau of central Mexico or in the
color: #0000FF;">[30]
Ecological role
meaning that it exists at the top of its food chain and is not preyed
on in the wild. The jaguar has also been termed a
species, as it is assumed, through controlling the
population levels of prey such as herbivorous and granivorous mammals,
apex felids maintain the structural integrity of forest systems.
color: #0000FF;">[28][56] However, accurately determining
what effect species like the jaguar have on ecosystems is difficult,
because data must be compared from regions where the species is absent
as well as its current habitats, while controlling for the effects of
human activity. It is accepted that mid-sized prey species undergo population
increases in the absence of the keystone predators and it has been hypothesized
that this has cascading negative effects.[57] However, field work has shown
this may be natural variability and that the population increases may
not be sustained. Thus, the
predator hypothesis is not favoured by all scientists.
color: #0000FF;">[58]
the next largest feline of the Americas, are often
(related species sharing overlapping territory) and have often been
studied in conjunction. Where sympatric with the jaguar, the cougar
is smaller than normal and is smaller than the local jaguars. The jaguar
tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller, reducing the latter's
size.[59] This situation may be advantageous
to the cougar. Its broader prey niche, including its ability to take
smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human-altered
landscapes;[28] while both are classified as
species, the cougar has a significantly larger current distribution.
Conservation status
A melanistic jaguar
by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
color: #0000FF;">[2] meaning it may be threatened
with extinction in the near future. The loss of parts of its range,
including its virtual elimination from its historic northern areas and
the increasing fragmentation of the remaining range, have contributed
to this status. The 1960s saw particularly significant declines, with
more than 15,000 jaguar skins brought out of the
Amazon yearly; the
on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
of 1973 brought about a sharp decline in the pelt trade.[60] Detailed work performed under
the auspices of the Wildlife Conservation Society reveal that the animal
has lost 37% of its historic range, with its status unknown in an additional
18%. More encouragingly, the probability of long-term survival was considered
high in 70% of its remaining range, particularly in the Amazon basin
and the adjoining Gran Chaco and
color: #0000FF;">[50]
across its habitat, increasing competition for food with human beings,
color: #0000FF;">[2]
in northern parts of its range, and the behaviour of ranchers who will
often kill the cat where it preys on livestock. When adapted to the
prey, the jaguar has been shown to take
as a large portion of its diet; while land clearance for grazing is
a problem for the species, the jaguar population may have increased
when cattle were first introduced to South America as the animals took
advantage of the new prey base. This willingness to take livestock has
induced ranch owners to hire full-time jaguar hunters, and the cat is
often shot on sight.[29]
The Pantanal,
seen here in flood condition, is a critical jaguar range area.
I species under
all international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited. All
hunting of jaguars is prohibited in
Guiana,
the United States (where it is listed as endangered under the
Species Act),
and Venezuela. Hunting of jaguars is restricted to "problem
animals" in Brazil,
Rica,
Mexico and Peru, while
hunting is still permitted in
The species has no legal protection in
or Guyana.[24]
and promoting ecotourism.[61] The jaguar is generally defined
as an umbrella species — a species whose home range
and habitat requirements are sufficiently broad that, if protected,
numerous other species of smaller range will also be protected.
color: #0000FF;">[62] Umbrella species serve as "mobile
links" at the landscape scale, in the jaguar's case through predation.
Conservation organizations may thus focus on providing viable, connected
habitat for the jaguar, with the knowledge that other species will also
benefit.[61]
the central Amazon—estimating jaguar numbers is difficult. Researchers
typically focus on particular bioregions, and thus species-wide analysis
is scant. In 1991, 600–1,000 (the highest total) were estimated
to be living in Belize. A year earlier, 125–180 jaguars were estimated
to be living in Mexico's 4,000 square kilometer (2400 mi²)
Biosphere Reserve, with another 350 in the state of
The adjoining Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala, with an area
measuring 15,000 square kilometers (9,000 mi²), may have 465–550 animals.
color: #0000FF;">[63] Work employing
in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100
square kilometers in the critical Pantanal region, compared with 10
to 11 using traditional methods; this suggests that widely used sampling
methods may inflate the actual numbers of cats.[64]
States Fish and Wildlife Service Director
by the George W. Bush Administration to abandon jaguar
recovery as a federal goal under the Endangered Species Act. The decision
is the first of its kind in the 34-year history of the Endangered Species
Act. Some critics of the decision said that the jaguar is being sacrificed
for the government's new border fence, which is to be built along many
of the cat's typical crossings between the United States and Mexico.
color: #0000FF;">[65]
protection of jaguar "hotspots". These hotspots were described
as Jaguar Conservation Units, and were large areas populated
by about 50 jaguars. However, some researchers recently determined that,
in order to maintain a robust sharing of the jaguar gene pool necessary
for maintaining the species, it is important that the jaguars be interconnected.
To effect this, a new project, the
the jaguar hotspots.[66]
In mythology and culture
Pre-Columbian
Americas
See also: Jaguars in Mesoamerican cultures
Jaguar warrior in the Aztec culture
Moche Jaguar. 300 A.D.
Museum Lima, Peru
has long been a symbol of power and strength. Among the
cultures, a jaguar cult disseminated by the early
culture became accepted over most of what is today
Peru by 900 BC. The later
culture of Northern Peru used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many
of their ceramics.[67]
early and influential culture of the
region roughly contemporaneous with the Chavín—developed
a distinct "were-jaguar" motif of sculptures and figurines
showing stylized jaguars or humans with jaguar characteristics. In the
later Maya civilization, the jaguar was believed to facilitate
communication between the living and the dead and to protect the royal
household. The Maya saw these powerful felines as their companions in
the spiritual world, and a number of Maya rulers bore names that incorporated
the Mayan word for jaguar (b'alam in many of the
languages). The
civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the representative of
the ruler and as a warrior. The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class
known as the Jaguar Knights. In
mythology, the jaguar was considered to be the
animal of the powerful deity
peoples of Brazil used its fat. They believed it would give them courage,
as if it was magical.
Contemporary culture
culture. It is the national animal of
and is featured in its
arms.[68] The
the Department of Amazonas, a Colombian department,
features a black jaguar silhouette pouncing towards a hunter.[69]
car brand. The name has been adopted by sports franchises,
including the NFL's
Jaguars and the
club Jaguares de Chiapas. Grammy winning Mexican rock
band "Jaguares" were also influenced by the magnificent
animal to choose their band name. The crest of
federation in
union features a jaguar; however,
of a historic accident, the country's
team is nicknamed Los Pumas.
figure in the 1942 novel Black Alibi
by Cornell Woolrich.
The jaguar became the first Olympic mascot in 1968 when Mexico City
hosted the Games. The jaguar was selected because of its association
with the geographical area where the Mayan culture once thrived.
color: #0000FF;">[70].
See also
References
- ^ a
W. C. (16 November 2005). Wilson, D. E., and Reeder, D. M. (eds). ed.
(3rd edition ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 546–547. - ^ a
A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman,
R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C. (2008).
2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 18 January
2009. Database entry includes justification for why this species is
near threatened. - ^ Stephen
Wroe, Colin McHenry, and Jeffrey Thomason (2006).
club: comparative bite force in big biting mammals and the prediction
of predatory behavior in fossil taxa"
(PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B
(Royal Society)
(1563): 619–625.
Retrieved 2006-08-07. - ^ a
Paul. "Sympatric Jaguar and Puma".
Ecology Online Sweden via archive.org.
Retrieved 2009-03-19. - ^ Rosa CL de la and Nocke,
2000. A guide
to the carnivores of Central America: natural history, ecology, and
conservation. The University of Texas Press. - ^ a
Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper.
Retrieved 2006-08-06. - ^
Vocabulario"
(in Spanish). Faculty of Law,
of Buenos Aires.
Retrieved 2006-09-29. - ^ Díaz,
Eduardo Acevedo (1890).
(in Spanish). Nativas.
Retrieved 2006-09-29. - ^ a
to the Wise"".
word for it, issue 198, p. 2.
Retrieved 11 August 2006. - ^
- La Verdadera Fiera""
(in Spanish). RED Yaguareté.
Retrieved 27 September 2006. - ^ "panther",
2nd edition - ^
Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper.
Retrieved 2006-10-26. - ^ "ounce" 2,
2nd edition - ^ a
W.E., Eizirik, E., Pecon-Slattery, J., Murphy, W.J., Antunes, A., Teeling,
E. & O'Brien, S.J. (2006). "The Late Miocene radiation of modern
Felidae: A genetic assessment".
(5757): 73–77. - ^ Turner,
A. (1987). "New fossil carnivore remains from the Sterkfontein
hominid site (Mammalia: Carnivora)". Annals of the Transvaal Museum 34: 319–347. - ^ a
L & Zhang YP (2005). "Phylogenetic studies of pantherine cats
(Felidae) based on multiple genes, with novel application of nuclear
beta-fibrinogen intron 7 to carnivores". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 35 (2): 483–495. - ^ a
WE & Obrien SJ (1997). "Phylogenetic reconstruction of the
Felidae using 16S rRNA and NADH-5 mitochondrial genes". Journal of Molecular Evolution 44: S098. - ^ a
N. Janczewski, William S. Modi, J. Claiborne Stephens, and Stephen J.
O'Brien (1 July 1996).
Evolution of Mitochondrial 12S RNA and Cytochrome b Sequences in the
Pantherine Lineage of Felidae".
Biology and Evolution 12 (4): 690.
Retrieved 2006-08-06. - ^ a
E, Kim JH, Menotti-Raymond M, Crawshaw PG Jr, O'Brien SJ, Johnson WE.
(2001). "Phylogeography, population history and conservation genetics
of jaguars (Panthera onca, Mammalia, Felidae)". Molecular Ecology 10 (1): 65. - ^ a
K.L. (1989). "Panthera onca"
(PDF). Mammalian Species 340 (340): 1–9.
Retrieved 2009-12-27. - ^ Nowak,
Ronald M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.).
Hopkins University Press. - ^ Larson,
Shawn E. (1997).
re-evaluation of the jaguar".
Biology 16 (2): 107.
Retrieved 2006-08-07. - ^ a
M, Payan E, Murillo A & Alvarez D (2006).
microsatellite characterization of the jaguar (Panthera onca) in Colombia"
(PDF). Genes & Genetic Systems 81 (2): 115–127. - ^ a
pp. 5–7, Jaguar Species Survival Plan - ^
nature tours, Pantanal nature tours, Brazil tours, Pantanal bir
Amazon tours, Iguassu Falls tours, all Brazil tours".
Focustours.com.
Retrieved 2009-03-08. - ^ Burnie,
David; Don E. Wilson (2001). Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife.
New York City:
Kindersley. - ^ a
about Jaguars: ECOLOGY"".
Conservation Society.
Retrieved 2006-08-11. - ^ a
Nuanaez, Brian Miller, and Fred Lindzey (2000).
habits of jaguars and pumas in Jalisco, Mexico".
of Zoology 252 (3): 373.
Retrieved 2006-08-08. - ^ a
Fact Sheet""
(PDF). Jaguar Species Survival Plan.
Retrieved 2006-08-14. - ^ a
and Jackson, P. (compilers and editors) 1996.
(PDF). IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. (see
pp 118–122) - ^
for the Jaguar".
Geographic Specials.
Public Television.
Retrieved 2006-08-11. - ^ McGrath,
Susan (August 2004).
Audubon Society.
Retrieved 2009-12-02. - ^ Dinets,
Vladmir. "First documentation of melanism in the jaguar (Panthera onca)
from northern Mexico".
Retrieved 2006-09-29. - ^ Meyer,
John R. (1994).
jaguars in Belize?: A survey of melanism in the jaguar, Panthera onca".
Explorer Group. biological-diversity.info. - ^
(panthera onca)"".
Zoo.
Retrieved 2006-08-11. - ^ a
Reproduction, pp. 28–38 - ^ Ronaldo
Gonçalves Morato, Marcelo Alcindo Barros de Vaz Guimaraes, Fernando
Ferriera, Ieda Terezinha do Nascimento Verreschi, Renato Campanarut
Barnabe (1999).
characteristics of captive male jaguars".
Journal of Veterinary Research and Animal Science 36 (5).
Retrieved 2006-08-08. - ^ a
Natural History & Behavior, pp. 8–16 - ^
Magnificence in the Southwest""
(PDF). Newsletter (
color: #CC2200;">Southwest Wildlife Rehabilitation & Educational
Foundation).
Spring 2006.
Retrieved 2009-12-06. - ^ George
B. Schaller, Peter Gransden Crawshaw, Jr. (1980).
Patterns of Jaguar".
(3): 161. doi:
Retrieved 2006-08-08. - ^ a
AR., Nottingham, BG Jr (1986).
and behaviour of the Jaguar (Panthera onca) in Belize, Central America"
(PDF). Journal of Zoology 210 (1): 149.
Retrieved 2009-12-06.
ranges are observed in this study in Belize. Note the overall size of
ranges is about half of normal. - ^ a
Louise H. (1987).
feeding ecology of felids in a neotropical rainforest".
Ecology and Sociobiology 20 (4): 271.
Retrieved 2006-08-08. - ^
Defenders of Wildlife.
Retrieved 2006-09-23. - ^
G. B. and Vasconselos, J. M. C. (1978). Jaguar predation on capybara.
Z. Saugetierk. 43: 296-301".
Retrieved 2009-10-18. - ^ a
That Designation of Critical Habitat Is Not Prudent for the Jaguar".
Register Environmental Documents. 2006-07-12.
Retrieved 2006-08-30. - ^ "Guidelines",
Hand-rearing, pp. 62–75 (see table 5) - ^ "Guidelines",
Nutrition, pp. 55–61 - ^
Catsurvivaltrust.org. 2002-03-09.
Retrieved 2009-03-08. - ^
The Western Hemisphere's Top Cat".
Planeta.
Retrieved 2009-03-08. - ^ a
W. Sanderson, Kent H. Redford, Cheryl-Lesley B. Chetkiewicz, Rodrigo
A. Medellín, Alan R. Rabinowitz, John G. Robinson, and Andrew B. Taber
(2002). "Planning to Save a Species: the Jaguar as a Model"
(PDF). Conservation Biology 16 (1): 58.
Retrieved 2009-12-11.
of present range and terrain types provided here. - ^
Management".
Arizona Game & Fish,.
Retrieved 2006-08-08. - ^
Game and Fish collars first wild jaguar in United States".
Readitnews.com.
Retrieved 2009-03-08. - ^ Hock,
Heather (2009-03-02).
forced vets to euthuanize recaptured jaguar".
Azcentral.com.
Retrieved 2009-03-08. - ^
the Impacts of Border Security Activities On Wildlife and Habitat in
Southern Arizona: STAKEHOLDER RECOMMENDATIONS"
(PDF). Wildlands Project.
Retrieved 2008-11-03. - ^
United States 16 000 years ago.
State Museum.
Retrieved 2006-08-20. - ^
(Panthera Onca)".
Zoo.
Retrieved 2006-08-30. - ^
and Character: Keystone Species".
Rhett Butler.
Retrieved 2006-08-30. - ^ Wright,
SJ; Gompper, ME; DeLeon, B (1994).
large predators keystone species in Neotropical forests? The evidence from Barro Colorado Island".
(2): 279. doi:
Retrieved 2006-08-08. - ^ J.
Agustin Iriarte, William L. Franklin, Warren E. Johnson, and Kent H.
Redford (1990).
variation of food habits and body size of the America puma".
(2): 185. doi:
Retrieved 2006-08-09. - ^ Weber,
William; Rabinowitz, Alan (August 1996).
Global Perspective on Large Carnivore Conservation"
(PDF). Conservation Biology 10 (4): 1046–1054.
Retrieved 2009-12-17. - ^ a
Refuge in the Llanos Ecoregion".
Fund.
Retrieved 2006-09-01. - ^
Desert Conservation Plan: Kids.
Retrieved 2006-09-01. - ^ "Guidelines",
Protection and Population Status, p. 4. - ^ Marianne
K. Soisalo, Sandra M.C. Cavalcanti. (2006).
the density of a jaguar population in the Brazilian Pantanal using camera-traps
and capture–recapture sampling in combination with GPS radio-telemetry".
Conservation 129: 487.
Retrieved 2006-08-08. - ^ Hebert,
H. Josef (2008-01-17).
Abandons Bid for Jaguar Recovery Plan".
Chronicle.
Press. - ^
of the jaguars project".
Ngm.nationalgeographic.com.
Retrieved 2010-04-02. - ^
Arqueologico Rafael Larco Herrera
(1997). Katherine Berrin. ed. The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueologico
Rafael Larco Herrera. New York City:
and Hudson. - ^
RBC Radio - ^
Department (Colombia)".
Fotw.net.
Retrieved 2010-04-02. - ^
External links
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar"
0 komentar:
Posting Komentar